Remediation Efficiency, Index Properties, and Compaction Characteristics of Vermi-Remediated Crude Oil–Contaminated Black Cotton Soil Stabilized with Cement Kiln Dust

John E. Sani, Ezekiel Adi Shiddi, George Moses, Kehinde K. Mustapha

Abstract


Crude oil contamination severely degrades the geotechnical performance of expansive black cotton soil (BCS), rendering it unsuitable for engineering reuse, while conventional stabilizers such as cement and lime remain costly and carbon-intensive. This study evaluates vermi-remediation using Eisenia fetida as a low-cost biological pre-treatment for crude oil–contaminated BCS, followed by stabilization with 0–8% cement kiln dust (CKD), an industrial by-product, with a view to reuse as landfill liner and cover material. Total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) content was determined gravimetrically before and after a 36-day vermi-remediation period, while index properties (natural moisture content, specific gravity, particle size distribution, and Atterberg limits) and compaction characteristics (maximum dry density, MDD, and optimum moisture content, OMC) of the remediated soil treated with CKD were investigated under three compactive efforts — British Standard Light (BSL), West African Standard (WAS), and British Standard Heavy (BSH) — in accordance with BS 1377 (1990, 2016). Vermi-remediation reduced the average TPH concentration from 5200 mg/kg to 4033 mg/kg, corresponding to a removal efficiency of 22.43%. CKD treatment increased the liquid limit from 53.10% to 55.60%, the plastic limit from 20.90% to 27.10%, and specific gravity from 2.320 to 2.340, while the plasticity index decreased from 32.20% to 28.50% and fines content declined across all compactive efforts, an outcome attributed to flocculation and agglomeration induced by cementitious hydration products. MDD ranged from 1.60–1.90 g/cm³ and OMC from 11.00–19.36%, both within limits recommended for landfill liner and cover materials. The results demonstrate that combining biological remediation with waste-derived chemical stabilization is a viable, sustainable pathway for converting hydrocarbon-contaminated expansive soils into geotechnically acceptable barrier materials. 


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